In the Brundtland report from 1987, sustainable development is defined as a development "that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of sustainable development does imply limits - not absolute limits but limitations imposed by the present state of technology and social organization on environmental resources and by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. (...)

Yet in the end, sustainable development is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs. We do not pretend that the process is easy or straightforward. Painful choices have to be made. Thus, in the final analysis, sustainable development must rest on political will" (Brundtland 1987:15).

In September 2015, the 193 members states of the United Nations (UN) adopted a new 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development that features 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with 169 targets, which UN member states have committed to implement by 2030.  The "Agenda is a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity"  (UN 2015).

Literature

Brundtland (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development - Our common future. (last access: 26.05.2021).

UN (2015). Tansforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

The UN´s Agenda 2030 For Sustainable Development aims to achieve "sustainable development in its three dimensions – economic, social and environmental – in a balanced and integrated manner" (UN 2015:3). Its sustainable developmental goals and targets are integrated and indivisible and balance these three dimensions of sustainable development (UN 2015:3). So for sustainable development to be achieved, it is crucial to harmonize these three core elements: economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection. These elements are interconnected and all are crucial for the well-being of individuals and societies (UN N.N.).

Sustainability is often depicted in diagrams such as shown as an example in the figure above. The three dimensions economic growth, social inclusion (or social equity) and environmental protection represent the three pillars of sustainability with sustainability at their core.
However, the dimensions have constant areas of conflict, where they interact or their interests overlap, and trade-offs are imminent. The same goes for the sustainable development goals and their targets.

For example, economic growth often involves a detrimental influence on the environment.

Note

In other contexts, additional dimensions are sometimes included such as politics, health or culture. One example is the concept of sustainable nutrition by Horst von Koerber, who defined the five dimensions of sustainable nutrition: environment, economy, society, health and culture (von Koerber et al. 2020:38).

Literature

OECD (2008). Background and issues paper - OECD Workshop on Eductaion for Sustainable Development (PDF).

UN (2015). Agenda 2030 For Sustainable Development.

UN (N.N.) The Sustainable Development Agenda.

von Koerber et al. (2020). Nutrition and the guiding principle of sustainability. Ernährungsumschau international 67(2): 32-41. (doi: 10.4455/eu.2020.011).

"At the core of the 2030 Agenda are 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The universal, transformational and inclusive SDGs describe major development challenges for humanity.

The aim of the 17 SDGs  is to secure a sustainable, peaceful, prosperous and equitable life on earth for everyone now and in the future. The goals cover global challenges that are crucial for the survival of humanity. They set environmental limits and set critical thresholds for the use of natural resources. The goals recognize that ending poverty must go hand-in-hand with strategies that build economic development. They address a range of social needs including education, health, social protection and job opportunities while tackling climate change and environmental protection. The SDGs address key systemic barriers to sustainable development such as inequality, unsustainable consumption patterns, weak institutional capacity and environmental degradation.

For the goals to be reached, everyone needs to do their part: governments, the private sector, civil society and every human being across the world. Governments are expected to take ownership and establish national frameworks, policies and measures for the implementation of the 2030 Agenda." (UN 2017).

"Adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015, the 17 Sustainable Development Goals—or SDGs or Global Goals as they are sometimes called—have 169 targets that countries are attempting to reach by 2030 at the latest. This is why the Goals are also referred to as the 2030 Agenda. (...)

The goals and targets are universal, meaning they apply to all countries around the world, not just developing countries. Reaching the goals requires action on all fronts—governments, businesses, civil society, and people everywhere" (IISD N.N.).

"The Sustainable Development Goals and targets a reintegrated and indivisible, global in nature and universally applicable, taking into account different national realities, capacities and levels of development and respecting national policies and priorities. Targets are defined as aspirational and global, with each Government setting its own national targets guided by the global level of ambition but taking into account national circumstances. Each Government will also decide how these aspirational and global targets should be incorporated into national planning processes, policies and strategies. It is important to recognize the link between sustainable development and other relevant ongoing processes in the economic, social and environmental fields. (. ..)
In deciding upon these Goals and targets, we recognize that each country faces specific challenges to achieve sustainable development (...)
We recognize that there are different approaches, visions, models and tools available to each country, in accordance with its national circumstances and priorities, to achieve sustainable development;" (UN 2015:13).

Do you know all 17 SDGs?

UN Sustainable Development Goals - Overview

Literature

IISD (N.N.). Sustainable Development Goals.

UN (2015). Tansforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

UN (2017) Education for Sustainable Development Goals: learning objectives.

When tackling at the Agenda 2030´s  17 SDGs and their 149 targets, challenges and trade-offs between the respective goals and targets arise.

1. Reflect and consider these trade-offs and challenges between the SDGs and research specific examples e.g. in the internet.
2. Upload a text for a regional or specific example for a trade-off between SDGs that is important to you, that concerns you personally or professionally or that you think should be taught to your vocational students in the future. Write at least 150 words.

(In case you need support, have a look at further reading material provided in this module.)

Points: 10

Submitting: a text entry box, a website url, or a file upload

File types: pdf

Brundtland (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development - Our common future (PDF).

UN (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Links

Sustainable development

Trade-offs and synergies between the SDGs (exemplary)

Fader et al. (2018). Toward an Understanding of Synergies and Trade-Offs Between Water, Energy, and Food SDG Targets. Front. Environ. Sci., 12.

Hinz et al (2020). Agricultural Development and Land Use Change in India: A Scenario Analysis of Trade-Offs Between UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Earth´s Future 8 (2).

Hutton et al. (2018) Potential Trade-Offs between the Sustainable Development Goals in Coastal Bangladesh. Sustainability 10 (4), 1108.

Kroll et al (2019). Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Are wesuccessful in turning trade-offs into synergies? nature 5, 140.

Scherer et al (2018). Trade-offs between social and environmental Sustainable Development Goals. Environmental Science & PolicyLinks to an external site. 90, 65-72.

Goal 12 - Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns

A transformation to a subsistence strategy and lifestyle, that respect the natural boundaries of our planet, can only succeed if we shift our consumption habits and production methods. The objective of SDG 12 is to achieve responsible consumption and production, for example by decoupling economic growth from unsustainable resource use and emissions and by improving the management of hazardous substances and waste

Why is this relevant for VET?

The employees of a company should recognize the relevance of sustainability in their daily operative activities and utilize potentials for sustainable management. They have a crucial role in the transformation of production patterns and need to be educated accordingly during their apprenticeship and further education. This requires a clear definition of required sustainability competencies, the structural incorporation of sustainability-oriented competencies in VET, and the establishment of companies and vocational schools as sustainable learning places. In addition to awareness raising of the employees of tomorrow for the topic "sustainability", a targeted fostering of necessary competencies is required to equip the trainees to accomplish changes towards sustainable production and consumption patterns on a professional and personal level. Vocational teachers and trainers have pivotal role as multipliers.

In this YouTube-film aspects of the Sustainable Development Goal 12 - Responsible Consumption and Production are broken down by Prof. Sami Kara from the School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, UNSW.

Examples are given in the following materials

Sustainable, zero-waste valorisation of (critical) metal containing industrial process residues - by Sokrates

How can we valorise waste? - explainity from the ReNEW project

Rescued fruits - a German start-up (in English)

OECD: Sustainable manufacturing good practices - best practice case studies that illustrate the many benefits of sustainable manufacturing

1. Research at least three best-practice examples for a profession you are going to teach and post it (or link to website or a YouTube-film) in the forum.
2. Critically comment at least three posts of your peers if you think their examples have the potential to go mainstream/ you see potential for other vocations as well / you see challenges

(Note: consider all sustainability dimensions!)

Check out this inspiring talk by Guido Pallazo, a professor of business ethics at the University of Lausanne, about responsible consumption, behaviour and the power of storytelling.

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is a key element of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. It "empowers learners with knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to take informed decisions and make responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability and a just society. ESD is a lifelong learning process and an integral part of quality education. It enhances the cognitive, social and emotional and behavioral dimensions of learning. It is holistic and transformational, and encompasses learning content and outcomes, pedagogy and the learning environment itself. ESD is recognized as a key enabler of all Sustainable Development Goals and achieves its purpose by transforming society" (UNESCO 2020:8).

"Vocational education and training (VET) plays a decisive role on the path to sustainable development. Innovations in industry and society that embrace sustainability can be achieved only with the help of competent professionals" (BIBB 2015). "VET for sustainable development fosters competencies for sustainable working and economic activity of future employees" (BIBB N.N.). It equips them with "knowledge about the possibilities and criteria for selecting sustainable alternatives [that] makes it possible to take informed decisions that are viable for the future" (BMBF 2020). This way, the future employees can shape "a sustainable future in their everyday work" (BMBF 2020). "Contributions to sustainability can be made at all stages of the production chain. Choices about raw materials, production conditions, packaging, transportation, product range and customer service all provide scope for sustainable decision-making" (BMBF 2020).

Literature

BIBB (2015). Shaping the future with vocational training for sustainable development.

BIBB (N.N.). Vocational training for sustainable development.

BMBF (2020). Food is how you make it.

UNESCO (2020). Education for Sustainable Development - A roadmap.

There are a number of differet international and national frameworks in the context of education for sustainable development. In 2019, the UN published the Education for Sustainable Development: Towards achieving the SDGs (ESD for 2030) framework.

ESD for 2030 aims to build a more just and sustainable world through strengthening ESD and contributing to the achievement of the 17 SDGs. Its objective is to promote ESD as a key element of quality education. Five Priority Action Areas – namely,

• advancing policy,
• transforming learning and training environments,
• building capacities of educators and trainers,
• empowering and mobilising youth and
• accelerating sustainable solutions at local level

serve as useful entry points for developing ESD for 2030 - activities. A roadmap to outline the implementation of the ESD for 2030 framework has also been published.

For Priority Action Area 3 on educators, there need to be more opportunities for them to increase their capacities to empower learners. The understanding on how transformative actions occur must be reflected in the capacity-development programmes for formal and non-formal educators so that they are clearly aware of the strengths and weaknesses of the various pedagogical approaches they employ. Educators must be facilitators of learning that guide the learners through the transformation as well as expert transmitters of knowledge (UN 2019:Annex II - p9).

ESD framework in Germany

In 2016, an updated version of the German Curriculum Framework Education for Sustainable Development was published. In chapter 4.6 (p. 371ff), overarching competencies, learning areas and key questions for ESD in vocational education and training (VET) are identified. However, it was refrained to focus on specific occupations due to their heterogeneity and high number. Core competencies of Global Development Education/ESD and corresponding VET competencies within the vocational acting competency (berufliche Handlungskompetenz) were formulated.

In addition, the German National Action Plan on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) was published in 2017. This action plan has the "goal of establishing Education for Sustainable Development in the structure of the German education system for the long term" (BMBF 2017:8).  Five action areas have been identified to foster ESD in VET. For example, it was stated that "it is necessary to define skills needed to implement sustainability in the training and work process" (Action Area IV) and "sustainability-oriented skills are to be integrated into curricula and suitable educational resources are to be developed" (Action Area V) (BMBF 2017: 41ff).

So far in Germany, aspects of ESD are integrated in general school curricula as well as in VET curricula. In all (current) VET curricula of the dual system (Rahmenlehrpläne), in addition to work-related competences, general aspects of sustainability can be found in part II - Educational Duty of the vocational school (Teil II Bildungsauftrag der Berufsschule) and part III - Didactical principles (Teil III Didaktische Grundsätze).

In 2020, modern standards for all trainees in the dual system (Standardberufsbildpositionen) were published, that are to be implemented in all vocational curricula starting in August 2021. These are general qualifications that are required for all vocations and encompass the four topics "Organisation of the company providing training, vocational education and training, employment and collective wage agreement law", "Health and safety at work", "Environmental protection ans sustainability", "digitalised world of work".

ESD framework in Norway

There is no specific framework for ESD in Norway.

"In 2020, Norway integrated Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) into the general curriculum by creating three cross-disciplinary school subjects; ‘Sustainable Development’, ‘Democracy and Citizenship’ and ‘Public Health and Life Skills’ (...) While sustainable development is anchored in the new curriculum, teacher education programmes do not include specific training for teaching sustainable development. Without proper training on social, economic and environmental sustainability, teachers could not be expected to take ownership of ESD. This would, in turn, limit the momentum of the new curriculum." (Norwegian Ministry of Local Government and Modernisation 2021:63).

ESD framework in Sweden

Environmental education was formally introduced into the Swedish curriculum in the 1960s. In the following decades this evolved further in following curricula. In 1994, the concept of sustainable development was addressed in the curriculum for upper secondary schools. And in 2020 in the present Swedish curriculum for upper secondary schools, sustainable development is emphasized as a perspective that should permeate teaching in all subjects, along with an international, an ethical and a historical perspective (Berglund 2020:37ff).

ESD framework in Turkey

There is no specific framework for ESD in Turkey.

A report draft of findings emerging from research activities conducted within the scope of the Global Schools Program Pilot Project led by the UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) was published in May 2021 by SDSN in cooperation with the Hacettepe University, Turkey. These findings include:

(1) How are the global perspectives of ESD and GCE incorporated into the local educational policies in Turkey?;

(2) How well does the Turkish national curriculum prepare generations regarding global citizenship and sustainable futures?;

The authors concluded "that both the Turkish national curriculum and Turkish educational policies reflect an adequate level of emphasis on ESD and GCE even though most of the focus happens to be implicit and changes across different subjects and educational levels. Also, the level of attention attached to SDGs highly depends on the thematic representation of a specific SDG and the content covered in a particular subject. All in all, the global perspectives and goals of ESD and GCE find a proper way into the local educational policies and national curriculum in Turkey; still, there is always room for improvement" (SDSN 2021:9).

Literature

Berglund, T. (2020). Student views of environmental, social and economic dimensions of sustainable development and their interconnectedness (phd thesis Karlstads Universiteit).

BMBF (2017). National Action Plan on Education for Sustainable Development.

Norwegian Ministry of Local Government and Modernisation (2021). Voluntary National Review 2021 Norway - Report on the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

SDSN (2021). Draft Report - The opportunities and challenges of curriculum localization for the sustainable development goals: results of the global schools pilot study in Turkey.

UN (2019). Framework for the implemetation of education for sustainable development (ESD) beyond 2019.

The UNESCO offers resources for educators on the SDGs here (click on SDG to find materials). However, there is no focus on VET. The offered materials are divided in early childhood, primary and secondary education.

"Invitation to the Wake – Sustainability for vocational training" by EPIZ where the students investigate the background of a crime in a restaurant and learn about sustainability along the way.

TU Berlin was part of the German joint-project "Korn-Scout" that had the objective to promote sustainable operation in everyday work life of grain-handling occupations such as miller, baker, confectioner, and brewer/maltster as well as neighboring occupations.

It was especially focused on communication on sustainability between every actor along the supply chain. This way all actors push the change towards sustainability and function as change agents. Therefore for future “GRAIN-SCOUTS”, several, innovative (German) teaching-learning materials were developed and its effectivity tested by the joint project partners in cooperation with the partners from practice. This included two workbooks that were designed as magazins (including interviews, a fotostory, a quiz etc.), a simulation game and a number of videos.

An extract of these materials was translated into English and is presented here:

• Foto story "Beerlove"- This foto story is part of a workbook about resources e.g. packaging, food (production) waste, carbon foor print. A  development of a foto story is also a potential group or class project where the students research a topic and condense it in a story.
• Interview with baker master Mustafa Topal - This interview was part of a workbook about aquisition of (organic) raw materials in food production.
• Simulation game "Fifty percent?!" (in progress)

1. Research local, national and global platforms and initiatives that offer teaching and learning materials for ESD in vocational education
2. Implement your findings (including web links) on a collaborative list using the link.

(Please indicate the language of the material.)

"How to encourage learners to undertake transformative actions for sustainability has been a major preoccupation for ESD. (...)

4.2 First of all, transformation necessitates, among other things, a certain level of disruption, with people opting to step outside the safety of the status quo or the “usual” way of thinking, behaving or living.

4.3 Second, there are different stages of transformation. With the acquisition of knowledge and information, learners come to be aware of the existence of certain realities. With critical analysis, they begin to understand the complexity of those realities. An experiential exposure to the realities provides them with a deeper connection with the issues, which can also lead to an empathic connection to those affected by the said realities. Empathy can turn into compassion if the exposed realities bear relevance to the learners’ own lives and their sense of identity. A tipping point arrives where a compassionate mind is set on the path of empowerment.

4.4 The pedagogical implications of this understanding are many and various. Opportunities to launch critical inquiry, exposure to realities, relevance to our own lives and the presence of influential peers, mentors or role models, as well as tipping points, play an important role in empowering individuals to take decisive actions. It is also important for learners to have the space to experiment with new “disruptive” ideas, which can facilitate critical perspectives as well as bring about a tipping point.

4.5 There has to be more attention to individuals and how they are transformed. Fundamental changes required for a sustainable future start with individuals and their change of behaviour, attitude and lifestyle, while the contextual factors and institutional support provide an enabling environment and can bulwark individual contributions. This is particularly so among the younger generation whose transformative action is often prompted when they attach importance to certain values and a lifestyle that corresponds to their sense of identity. ESD is needed to provide them with critical thinking skills to reflect on individual values, attitudes and behaviours as well as lifestyle choices. (...)

4.10 ESD in the future will have to encourage learners to explore values which could provide an alternative to consumer societies, such as sufficiency, fairness and solidarity. The emerging interest in a circular economy and a sharing economy represents one of those alternatives." (UN 2019: Annex II, p4f).

Literature

UN (2019). Framework for the implemetation of education for sustainable development (ESD) beyond 2019.

The UNESCO proposes a number of approaches for delivering education for sustainable development (ESD) in the classroom

1. Whole-institution approach

"ESD is not only about teaching sustainable development and adding new content to courses and training. Schools and universities should see themselves as places of learning and experience for sustainable development and should therefore orient all their processes towards principles of sustainability. For ESD to be more effective, the educational institution as a whole has to be transformed. Such a whole-institution approach aims at mainstreaming sustainability into all aspects of the educational institution. It involves rethinking the curriculum, campus operations, organizational culture, student participation, leadership and management, community relationships and research (UNESCO, 2014a). In this way, the institution itself functions as a role model for the learners" (UNESCO 2017:53).

2. Action-oriented transformative pedagogy

"ESD is about empowering and motivating learners to become active sustainability citizens who are capable of critical thinking and able to participate in shaping a sustainable future. Pedagogical approaches that are adequate to this aim are learner-centered, action-oriented and transformative. (...)  Methods that foster competencies through active learning are favoured" (UNESCO 2017:54) such as

• "Collaborative real-world projects, such as service-learning projects and campaigns for different SDGs
• Vision-building exercises such as future workshops, scenario analyses, utopian/dystopian story-telling, science-fiction thinking, and forecasting and backcasting
• Analyses of complex systems through community-based research projects, case studies, stakeholder analysis, actors’ analysis, modelling, systems games, etc.
• Critical and reflective thinking through fish-bowl discussions, reflective journals, etc." (UNESCO 2017:55).

In case you are interested to learn more about these methods, I added some voluntary material about some of them in this course.

Key pedagogial approaches include:

Learner-centred approach

Learner-centred pedagogy sees students as autonomous learners and emphasizes the active development of knowledge rather than its mere transfer and/or passive learning experiences. The learners’ prior knowledge as well as their experiences in the social context are the starting points for stimulating learning processes in which the learners construct their own knowledge base. Learner-centred approaches require learners to reflect on their own knowledge and learning processes in order to manage and monitor them. Educators should stimulate and support those reflections. Learner-centred approaches change the role of an educator to one of being a facilitator of learning processes (instead of being an expert who only transfers structured knowledge) (Barth, 2015).

Action-oriented learning

In action-oriented learning, learners engage in action and reflect on their experiences in terms of the intended learning process and personal development. The experience might come from a project (in-service learning), an internship, the facilitation of a workshop, the implementation of a campaign, etc. Action-learning refers to Kolb’s theory of the experiential learning cycle with the following stages: 1. Having a concrete experience, 2. Observing and reflecting, 3. Forming abstract concepts for generalization and 4. Applying them in new situations (Kolb,1984). Action-learning increases knowledge acquisition, competency development and values clarification by linking abstract concepts to personal experience and the learner’s life. The role of the educator is to create a learning environment that prompts learners’ experiences and reflexive thought processes.

Transformative learning

Transformative learning can best be defined by its aims and principles, rather than by any concrete teaching or learning strategy. It aims at empowering learners to question and change the ways they see and think about the world in order to deepen their understanding of it (Slavich and Zimbardo, 2012; Mezirow, 2000). The educator is a facilitator who empowers and challenges learners to alter their worldviews. The related concept of transgressive learning (Lotz-Sisitka et al., 2015) goes one step further: It underlines that learning in ESD has to overcome the status quo and prepare the learner for disruptive thinking and the co-creation of new knowledge" (UNESCO 2017:55).

Literature

UNESCO (2017). Education for Sustainable Development Goals - Learning Objectives (PDF).

Service-learning combines learning objectives (i.e. academic goals) with forward-thinking approaches that benefit the wider community. It fosters critical thinking, problem-solving, communication skills, teamwork and responsibility.

Links

• www.prodigygame.com/in-en/blog/service-learning/
• classful.com/10-creative-service-learning-projects/
• servelearn.co/blog/10-creative-service-learning-projects-to-inspire-your-students/
• www.siemens-stiftung.org/en/projects/service-learning-in-stem/

A Future Workshop enables a group of people to develop solutions to social or technological problems. This method furthermore fosters critique, learning, team work, democracy and empowerment. It is divided in three to five phases, depending on the source.

• (preparation phase - organization, planning and management of the workshop)
• critique phase - drawing out specific issues and problems in questions and establishing a critical understanding of the theme and the problems in question
• fantasy phase - first creation of a utopia, drawing an exaggerated picture of future possibilities, then the most promising ideas are transformed, and reduced to a possible and realizable core.
• implementation phase - adaption to reality, to achieve suggestions for one or more projects that are possible to implement
• (follow-up phase - formulation of a report with an action plan and evaluation of the working process).
   

Links

Vidal, R.V.V (2005). The Future Workshop: Democratic Problem Solving (technical report).

Participedia (N.N.). Future Workshop.

www.involve.org.uk/resources/methods/future-workshop

www.usabilitybok.org/future-workshop

"The term backcasting was coined by Robinson (1982) in the description of a method of policy analysis. Robison defines the backcasting like a normative and designed- oriented method which works “backwards from a particular desired end point to the present in order to determine the feasibility of that future and what policy measures would be required to reach that point” (Robinson, 1990 p.823) . A backcasting process moves from a definition of future goals and objectives. Then those are used to develop a future scenario . End points are usually chosen for a time far into the future, around 25-50 years" (Miola 2008:16).

Sustainability Strategy: Backcasting from Success.

Literature

Miola, A. (2008). Backcasting approach for sustainable mobility. doi: 10.2788/77831.

Thenaturalstep.de (N.N.). Our ABCD Process.

1. Choose a topic or learning field you will teach in the future from your national curriculum ((e.g. German Rahmenlehrplan)
2. Identify possible links to sustainable development (see example)
3. Choose suitable approaches and methods and give reasons for your choices

Example

Sustainability-related aspects in learning field 7 "Würze kochen" (wort cooking) in the framework of the vocational education of brewer /maltster:

• Energy and water uptake during wort cooking (heating systems, energy calculations)
• In this learning field, the raw material hops is introduced. The cultivation of hops requires a high amount of water. Although only 4g of hops is used to produce a liter of beer, hops contributes greatly to the water footprint of beer.
• Comparison of dried hops vs. hop pellets vs. genetically modified yeast with hop aroma
• Comparison of drying hops with and without the use of sulfur
• The isomerisation of alpha-acids of hops is energy-intensive and can be chemically enhanced using catalysts and increasing the pH. Trade-offs can be discussed.

Points: 10

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