What is Democracy?

The word democracy comes from the Greek words "demos", meaning people, and "kratos" meaning power; so democracy can be thought of as "power of the people": a way of governing that depends on the will of the people (Council of Europe, 2021).

Democracy is a system of government in which laws, policies, leadership, and major undertakings of a state or other polity are directly or indirectly decided by the “people,” a group historically constituted by only a minority of the population but generally understood since the mid-20th century to include all (or nearly all) adult citizens (Britannica, 2021).

Democracy is described as representative governance by the people (Gleeson, 2011). According to Dewey (1916: 87) democracy is “a mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated experience,” pertaining to individuals’ interactions with each other and societal interests.

Video about What Democracy Is

"Of the people, by the people, for the people" -Abraham Lincoln

Key Features of Democracy

Key features of democracy include the rule of law and its role to protect citizens from tyranny. Moreover, democracy relies on an educated, wise citizenry engaged in debates related to the creation of laws, but who, despite disagreement, collectively adhere to the rule of law (Woodruff, 2005).

• Respect for basic human rights
• A multi-party political system paired with political tolerance
• A democratic voting system
• Respect for the rule of law
• Democratic governance
• Citizen participation

Video about the Key Features of Democracy

Main Principles of Democracy

There are four main principles of democracy:

• There is a belief in the individual because the individual is believed to be both moral and rational.
• There is a belief in reason and progress because growth and development is the natural condition of mankind and politics.
• There is a belief in a society that is consensual because there is a desire for order and cooperation, not disorder and conflict.
• There is a belief in shared power because there is suspicion of concentrated power (whether by individuals, groups or governments).

Different Types of Democracies

Direct Democracy: All citizens are invited to participate in all political decisions.  This form of democracy is no longer practised.

Representative Democracy: Representatives are elected by the people and entrusted to carry out the business of governance. 

Constitutional Democracy: A constitution outlines who will represent the people and how. 

Monitory Democracy: The government is constantly monitored in its exercise of power by a vast array of public and private agencies, commissions and regulatory mechanisms (The Museum of Australian Democracy).

References

Heywood, A. (2003). Political ideologies: An Introduction (Third edition). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Council of Europe. (2007). The tool on teacher training for education for democratic citizenship and human rights education. Strasbourg.

Council of Europe. (2021). Democracy. Compass. Human rights themes. Democracy.

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: The Free Press.

Gleeson, A.M. (2011). Preparing teachers and students for democracy: Teacher and student learning and authentic intellectual work [Doctoral Dissertation]. BOSTON COLLEGE. Lynch School of Education.

The Museum of Australian Democracy. (n.d.). Defining democracy.

Woodruff, P. (2005). First democracy: The challenge of an ancient idea. New York: Oxford University Press.

Equality

Equality is the idea that everyone should have the same opportunity to influence the decisions that affect people in society. In other words, equality is about ensuring that every individual has an equal opportunity to make the most of their lives and talents. 

Tip: No one should have poorer life chances because of the way they were born, where they come from, what they believe, or whether they have a disability.

Majority

Since democracy offers a simple mechanism, it tends to be the "rule of the majority"; but the rule of the majority can mean that some people's interests are never represented. A more genuine way of representing everyone's interests is to use decision making by consensus, where the aim is to find common points of interest.

The majority rule may take decisions that are harmful to minorities if the decisions are not backed up by a guarantee of human rights for all. The basic interests of minorities, as well as majorities, need to be safeguarded in any democratic system by adherence to human rights principles (Council of Europe, 2021).

Tip: Democracy should not even be "rule of the majority", if that means that minorities´interests are ignored completely. A democracy, at least in theory, is government on behalf of all the people, according to their "will".

What are the advantages and disadvantages of making decisions by consensus, compared to using majority rule?

Democracy is not the law of the majority, but the protection of the minority. -Albert Camus.

Justice

Justice is achieved when citizens live in an environment in which all citizens are treated equally and accorded dignity and respect. This may occur in a representative democracy that is tempered by constitutionalism, free elections and restraints on power (Council of Europe, 2021). 

Tip 1: The demands made by vested interest groups seeking special privileges should be questioned.

Tip 2: Society must encourage talent and reward citizens on merit, rather than on rank, privilege or status.

Inclusion

Democratic systems can nearly always be made more inclusive, more reflective of more people's wishes, and more responsive to their influence. In other words, there is room to improve the "people" part of democracy, by including more people in decision making. 

Even in established democracies, there are other sections of society, which commonly include immigrants, migrant workers, prisoners and children, who are not given the right to vote, even though many of them might pay taxes and all are obliged to obey the laws of the land.

Everyone should be supported to have access to resources and decision making and to be recognised, valued and respected. When supports are not put in place it usually results in exclusion even if this is not intended.

Today, in most countries of the world, women do have the vote but the struggle has been won only relatively recently (Council of Europe, 2021).

No one is born a good citizen, no nation is born a democracy. Rather, both are processes that continue to evolve over a lifetime. Young people must be included birth. -Kofi Annan.

Tip 1: New Zealand is said to be the first country in the world to have introduced universal suffrage, in 1893, although even here, women were only granted the right to stand for parliament in 1919.

Tip 2: In Turkey, women were granted to the right to stand for parliament in 1934.

Legitimacy

Legitimacy is the right and acceptance of governing law or a regime. A legitimate government is one that has the appropriate mandate/authority to rule. This usually means a high degree of popular support as demonstrated by a free electorate and frequent elections.

Tip: The government is chosen by the majority vote, but rules are framed to maximiza the well-being of all or most citizens.

Human Rights

Human rights and democracy are deeply connected to each other. In fact, the right to take part in government is itself a human right. Therefore, democracy is incomplete without respect for human rights. Especially three basic rights are essential in a democracy: 

1. Freedom of thought, conscience and religion. Without being punished, people can think freely and hold whatever beliefs are important to them. 

Tip 1: Governments throughout history have tried to limit this right because they are afraid that if people think about other forms of government, this will endanger the current system.

2. Freedom of expression. People can also express their opinion out loud, whatever that opinion may be. 

Tip 2: If people are prevented from disussing their viess with other people, or presenting them in the media, how can they "take part" in government?

3. Freedom of peaceful assembly and association. People can discuss ideas with others who want to do so, form interest groups or lobbying groups, or gather together for the purposes of protest against decisions they disagree with. 

Tips 3: Although some activities such as protesting sometimes may be inconvenient for governments; it is important in democracies that different views are to be made known and taken into account.

Besides these three human rights, any infringement of other human rights will also affect democracy. People who are suffering from poverty, poor health, or the lack of a home, can have difficulty in having their voice heard (Council of Europe, 2021).

How well are the three "democratic" righs (listed above) respected in your country?

References

Council of Europe. 2021. Democracy. Compass. Human Rights Themes.

In Ancient Greece citizens were the ones who had a legal right to participate in the affairs of the state. However, slaves, peasants, women or resident foreigners were not counted as citizens in those days.

For those who did have the privileged status of being citizens, participation was not considered only a right but also a duty. A citizen who did not meet his responsibilities was considered socially disruptive.  

Citizenship is the relationship between an individual and a state. In this relationship, the individual owes allegiance and she/he is entitled to protection. With citizenship, individuals gain the status of freedom. Full political rights, including the right to vote and to hold public office, are also gained by citizenship. Moreover, citizens have certain rights, duties, and responsibilities.  Allegiance, taxation, and military service are some of the responsibilities of citizenship (Britannica, 2021).

It is not always the same thing to be a good man and a good citizen. -Aristotle

There are two ways to become citizenship. Individuals are either born citizens because their parents were citizens or because they were born in that country or they can become naturalized citizens.

Video: What is citizenship?

Today "citizenship" is related to a sense of belonging to a community that one can shape and influence directly. A shared moral code, an identical set of rights and obligations, loyalty to a commonly owned civilisation, or a sense of identity can define such a community (Council of Europe, 2021).

Tip: Democratic citizenship refers to the active participation by individuals in the system of rights and responsibilities which is the lot of citizens in democratic societies (Consultation Meeting for the Education for Democratic Citizenship Programme of the Council of Europe, 1996).

What senses of belonging do you recognise in yourself?

Dimensions of Citizenship

There are four citizenship dimensions related to the subsystems in the relationship between the individual and society. They are called the political/legal dimension, the social dimension, the cultural dimension and the economic dimension (Council of Europe, 2017).

The political dimension means political rights and responsibilities. Knowledge of the political system and the promotion of democratic attitudes and participatory skills are necessary for the development of this dimension.

The social dimension is related to the behaviour between individuals in a society and some measure of loyalty and solidarity are required. To develop this dimension, social skills and the knowledge of social relations in society are essential.

The cultural dimension means the consciousness of a common cultural heritage.  To develop this dimension, the knowledge of cultural heritage, and of history and basic skills (language competence, reading and writing) are essential.

The economic dimension is about the relationship between an individual and the labour and consumer market. It means the right to work and to a minimum subsistence level. Economic skills (for job-related and other economic activities) and vocational training are necessary for the fulfilment of this dimension.

These four dimensions of citizenship are gained through socialisation processes at school, in families, civic organisations, political parties, as well as through associations, mass media, the neighbourhood and peer groups. To balance full citizenship, every individual should exercise the four dimensions in a balanced and equal manner (Council of Europe, 2017).

Active Citizenship

By being part of a community individuals can influence it, participate in its development and contribute to its well-being. Therefore, citizenship is the practice of playing an active role in society, such as within the neighbourhood, in a formal or informal social group, in our country, or in the whole world. Therefore, active citizenship requires working to improve the community by participation (Council of Europe, 2021).

Aspects of Good Citizenship

There are three aspects of good citizenship:

1. A good citizen is empowered. They exercise their rights and believe that they can make a difference by doing so.
2. A good citizen is also community-minded. They feel a sense of responsibility for their communities and they want to do what's best for everyone in their community. They stand up for the rights of others.
3. A good citizen is informed. They know how the government works. They are up to date on the problems that the government is facing and the decisions that it's making.

Tip: Good citizens are invaluable to democracy because democracy works best when citizens are knowledgeable and active in political debate.

References

Britannica (2021). Citizenship.

Council of Europe. (2017). T-Kit 7 European citizenship in youth work. 

Council of Europe. (2021).  Democracy. Compass. Human rights themes. Citizenship and Participation. 

Responsibility

Aristotle believed that education creates societies in which citizens want to live together with a sense of social responsibility 2300 years ago.

Today, citizenship is expected to develop a sense of common responsibility among citizens for the well-being and continued development of the community. Therefore, citizenship is related to a list of responsibilities assigned to the citizen by the state. These responsibilities are things that they should do but are not required by law. Some examples of responsibilities are as follows:

• Voting
• Attending civic meetings
• Respecting and protecting others’ rights

It is the first responsibility of every citizen to question authority. -Benjamin Franklin.

Tip: The main objective of national education is to inform and educate young citizens about the roles, duties and responsibilities awaiting them in the future. The education system is clearly the best place to analyse the expectations of the state from its citizens.

Duty

A duty, called an obligation, is something that a citizen is required to do, by law. 

Cicero, an early Roman philosopher who discusses duty in his work “On Duty", suggests that duties can come from four different sources:

• as a result of being a human
• as a result of one's particular place in life (one's family, one's country, one's job)
• as a result of one's character
• as a result of one's own moral expectations for oneself

Some duties that come from citizenship are:  

• obeying laws
• paying taxes
• defending the nation

Tip: ´Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible´. -Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 29.

Which are the most important duties you have at present in your life?

Freedom

Individuals should secure recognition and respect for the freedoms of others in the exercise of their freedoms. While using freedom right, everyone should meet the requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society. 

John Locke argued that the state exists merely for the sake of its citizens, and the protection of their rights and freedoms. Based on a social contract between the people and their government, some of the freedoms that citizens have are as follows:

• to think
• to believe
• to express their beliefs
• to organise themselves
• to work
• o buy and sell
• to choose their government freely

Tip: Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. -Unversal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 20.

Right to Vote

Voting is essential for involvement and participation in the processes of a democratic society. In fact, citizenship is often associated with the practice of voting.

It is being increasingly realised that periodic voting by citizens is insufficient (Council of Europe, 2021). This low voting demonstrates political apathy among the citizens. Unfortunately, low voting seriously undermines the effective functioning of democracy. Therefore, all citizens should be educated about the importance of voting and should be encouraged to use this right.

The ballot is stronger than the bullet. - Abraham Lincoln

Tip: Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. - Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 21.

Do you agree with the followin statement? Why/why not? "It`s not worth voting for representatives to sit on the school council, because the council only discusses and makes recommendations; it can´t make binding decisions."

Belonging

Individuals are part of a community where everybody cares for the same issues. They are committed to community developments and take action for them. Belonging is a primary need for each individual and it makes us attached to an entity external to us. It is the consciousness of belonging to something that makes us feel comfortable and part of a group. 

The sense of belonging is connected to individuals' identity. Sometimes this aspect of identity may be denied by others and not recognised. For instance, immigrants feel that they are not recognised as citizens because others look only at their nationality.

While identity distinguishes individuals from others, each sense of belonging leads to a new group of people. Therefore, we should not limit identity with a couple of senses of belonging (Council of Europe, 2017).

What senses of belonging do you recognise in yourself?

Tip: It is not only about acknowledging one´s sense of belonging, but also the sense of belonging of others. This requires an explicit openness to diversity, regardless of cultural, geographical or legally established borders.

Participation

Participation is a fundamental human right. In the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, there are some rights related to participation:

• the right to participate in government and free elections
• the right to participate in the cultural life of the community
• the right to peaceful assembly and association
• the right to join trade unions

Participation is also underlined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child. It says that:

• Children have the right to have their voice heard when adults are making decisions that affect them. 
• Their views should be given due weight in accordance with the child's age and maturity.
• They have the right to express themselves freely and to receive and share information.

Participation means to be involved, to have tasks and to share and take over responsibility. It means to have access and to be included. -Peter Lauritzen.

Without several human rights, participation becomes difficult. Similarly, without participation, many human rights are difficult to access. For example, poor health, low levels of education, restrictions on freedom of expression, and poverty affect negatively people's participation in political and cultural life which affect them and their rights. Participation is one of the most powerful ways to build a society based on human rights, develop social cohesion, make people's voice heard to influence decision-makers, and achieve change. 

Tip: Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits. -Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 27.

What forms of involvement or participation, other than voting in elections, are possible for the ordinary citizen?

References

Convention on the Rights of the Child.

Council of Europe. (2017). T-Kit 7 European citizenship in youth work.

Council of Europe. (2021). Democracy. Compass. Human rights themes. Citizenship and Participation.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Examining the origins of the terms city, democracy, and citizenship always leads us to the concepts of Greek, Roman, and medieval cities (Isin, 2002). City-states were called cite or city, and the person living in city-states was called a citizen or a citoyen. People who were members of a community or community in ancient Rome were also called “civis” and “civitas” (Boineau, 1998).

Citizenship is generally known as the legal bond between the state and the individual (Aybay, 1998). But citizenship does not consist of only rights and obligations. "Citizenship may be defined as that set of practices (juridical, political, economic and cultural) which define a person as a component member of society, and which as a consequence shape the flow of resources to persons and social groups." (Turner, 2000:2). For this reason, it will not be enough to look at this concept only from the state and legal perspectives. Since citizenship has a historically changing social structure affected by political struggles and social events (Turner, 2002). Examining the historical foundations of citizenship will help to understand its social structure. This concept can be examined under three headings: Ancient Greek, Pre-Modern Citizenship, and Modern Citizenship.

1. Ancient Greek

Citizenship emerged in autonomous medieval cities in the West (Kalberg, 2000). In these cities, citizenship was generally associated with the concepts of privilege and obligation. It was a concept based on the determination of people who had the floor in political decisions, benefitted from opportunities, and fulfilled military duties for the state (Ozkazanc, 2009). However, it was a quality that few of the urban population possessed.   

In Athens, on the other hand, citizenship can be thought of as an inheritance from the family. It was necessary to be the son, grandson, or great-grandchild of someone who previously held the title of citizen. In the early Roman period, it was perceived as the right of a group to engage in political activities that only noblemen, excluding slaves, foreigners, and women, owned (Turner, 2000). While this right includes participation in legislative, executive election, judgment, and war and peace decision processes, it does not encompass the right to speak on social and economic issues (Aybay, 1982).

Tip: An understanding of citizenshio that does not encompass all segments of society.

2. Pre-Modern Citizenship

With the spread of Christianity, the effect of the idea that slaves and women, excluded from citizenship, had equal rights with noblemen caused a change in the understanding of citizenship in the Ancient Greek period (Reisenberg, 1992). In addition, developments in political and social life such as feudalism and the Renaissance shaped the concept of citizenship.

-Feudalism

The increase in wars, the change of the political borders of the countries, the decrease of the central authority's power, and the need for protection in people revealed the feudal system. The mutual agreement between the wealthy landowners and the lords on security and economic interests also affected the concept of citizenship. This agreement underlined the direction of loyalty. It headed for a person, but not for the law or the constitution. (Heater, 2004). Public roles such as tax collection, administration, judgment, and enforcement were no longer performed by the state (Wood, 2011). In addition, another important event for the concept of citizenship is the Magna Carta document signed between the King and his lords in England. This document was about the sharing of authority between kings and lords. However, it became legal and political grounds for human rights and freedom (Taylor, 1994).

-Absolute Monarchy and the French Revolution

In the 13th century, political reactions to the feudal system reduced the power of feudal forces and the church, the concept of national monarchy appeared. The prominence of the bourgeoisie laid the foundations of nation-states and absolute monarchy in Europe. Renaissance and Reformation movements also affected people's views of the world, which in turn affected their perception of citizenship. It gained the concept of homeland and the legal status of citizenship in the nation-state understanding. In other words, it provided the establishment of the relationship between the state and the person on a legal basis and legitimized the concept of citizenship. (Tore, 2017).

The concept of citizenship, gaining the meanings of membership, identity, and right of participation, took place with the developments in Europe and America from the middle of the 17th century to its end (Abowitz & Harnish, 2006). In this period, discussion about the rights and responsibilities of citizenship increased. Some of them were that participation in political life was not unique to the wealthy people, women must have the floor, and the rights of local people in the colonies must be considered (Turan & Ibret, 2020).

3. Modern Citizenship

The concept of modern citizenship emerged with the effects of the 1789 French Revolution. The emphasis on equality, rights, and obligations, and the national expression of the distinction between the people of the country and the people of foreign countries took place in this period (Brubaker, 1989). The state undertook the duty of an authority responsible for ensuring the comfort and peace of its citizens. (Lefebvre, 2016). Jean-Jacques criticized the concept of representative state and supported the participation of all people in decisions (Kadıoğlu, 2008). However, women and those who do not own property were excluded from political involvement and were seen as passive citizens (Goztepe, 2003).

Emphasis on equality, Rights and obligations, and Reactions to discrimination.

-Citizenship today

Citizenship is a universal feature of the modern world today. Each state officially defines the citizenship that exists in its country. Rights and duties were often referred to as political rights and obligations, depending on this defined citizenship status. Today, these rights and obligations define an area of legal equality for all citizens (Turan & Ibret, 2020).

References

Abowitz, K., & Harnish, J. (2006). Contemporary discourses of citizenship. Review of Educational Research, 76 (4), 653–690.

Aybay, R. (1982). Yurttaşlık (vatandaşlık) hukuku ders kitabı ve temel yasa metinleri, Ankara: Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Yayınları, A.Ü. S.B.F. Basın ve Yayın Yüksek Okulu Basımevi.

Boineau, J. (1998). Fransa'da devrim döneminde yurttaşlar ve yurttaşlık. (Trans.:Y. Küey). İstanbul: Kesit Yayıncılık.

Brubaker, W. R. (1989). The French Revolution and the invention of citizenship. French Politics and Society, 7(3), 30-49.

Goztepe, E. (2003). Yurttaşlığın kamusal ve ulusüstü boyutu: Avrupa yurttaşlığı ve göçmen forumu örnekleri. Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 52(4), 229-248.

Heater, D. B. (2004). A history of education for citizenship. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

Isin,  E. F. (2002). City, democracy, and citizenship:  Historical images, contemporary practices. In: Isin, E. F. and Turner, B. S. (eds). Handbook of citizenship studies. London, UK: Sage, pp. 305–316.

Kadıoğlu, A. (2008). Vatandaşlık ve siyasal katılım. In S. Yazıcı, K. Gözler, F. Keyman (eds.), Prof.Dr.Ergün Özbudun’a armağan (pp. 225-246). Ankara: Yetkin.

Kalberg, S. (2000). Cultural foundations of modern citizenship. In B. Turner, (Ed.) Citizenship and Social Theory, London: Sage.

Lefebvre, A. (2016). The rights of man and the care of the self. Political Theory, 44(4), 518-540.

Ozkazanç, A. (2009). Toplumsal vatandaşlık ve neo-liberalizm sorunu. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 64(1), 247-274.

Reisenberg, P. (1992). Citizenship in the Western Tradition, Plato to Rousseau, USA: The University of North Carolina Press.

Taylor, D. (1994).Citizenship and social power. In B. S. Turner and P. Hamilton (eds). Citizenship: Critical concepts, Vol. 1. London: Routledge.

Tore, N. (2017). Değişen dünyada vatandaşlik. Journal of Judgments by the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes/Uyusmazlik Mahkemesi Dergisi, 10, 553-595.

Turner, B. (ed.) (2002) Citizenship and Social Theory, London: Sage.

Turan, S. & Ibret B. U. (2020). Mekânsal vatandaşlik ve sosyal bilgiler eğitimi. In N. E. Akhan and S. Demirezen (eds.) Sosyal bilgiler öğretiminde alternatif konular. Ankara: Nobel Yayıncılık.

Turner, B. (ed.) (2002) Citizenship and Social Theory, London: Sage

Wood, E. M. (2011). Citizens to Lords: A Social History of Western Political Thought from Antiquity to the Late Middle Ages, London: Verso.

Democracy is one of the oldest regimes used for centuries, though it has undergone some changes from the past to the present. When the origin of the concept of democracy is examined, it comes from the Greek word "demoskratos" and means the rule of the people (demos-people; Kratos-power, power)(Miller, Coleman, Connoly & Ryan, 1991). However, no definition for democracy can fully express its meaning (Laski, 1962). It is not possible to make a single definition of democracy because it is affected by the socio-economic, political, and legal characteristics of the society in which it is applied (Demir, 2010). Nevertheless, Dahl (1998) stated that for a form of the regime to be called democracy, there were some conditions: active participation, equal voting rights, access to information, control of the agenda, and adult participation.

Democracy started with the participation of only adult and free men in the management of the city-states, and today it has turned into a political order that represents human rights (Demir, 2010). It, therefore, is crucial to examine the historical journey of democracy to consider the concept of democracy comprehensively.

Ancient democracy

The first applications of democracy took place first in Athens and Rome (Esgerova, 2018). It is important, then, to consider Athenian democracy to examine the historical foundations of democracy. The first practice of democracy was Athens democracy in 508-507 BC. The first practice of democracy was Athens democracy in 508-507 BC. During this period, Cleisthenes, known as the "father of Athenian democracy", implemented direct democracy with the constitutional order (Thorley, 1996). All persons with the title of "citizen" participated in voting for the assembly (Esgerova, 2018). Isegoria, equality of speech, was associated with democracy. “.. all the fundamental policy decisions—about war and peace, foreign relations, taxation, the rules of citizenship and property, and so on—were made by the assembly, in which every adult male citizen was eligible to participate” (Finley, 1982:7). The meaning of democracy is the sovereignty of the people or a form of the regime based on self-government; however, it is remarkable that the vast majority of the people, namely slaves and women, are excluded from this practice (Smith, 2008). With the conquest of Greek cities by Alexander the Great, the form of government in Athens changed. With the influence of despotic understanding of his father, II. Philip, the democracy in Ancient Greece, lasting about two hundred years ended (Woodruff, 2005). At the same time, the first applications of democracy management took place in Athens, the form of the regime in Rome was "Republika". The right to participate in government belonged to the aristocracies. With the collapse of the Roman republic, democracy appeared in Italy about a thousand years later, except for a few communities (Esgerova, 2018).

Video: Greek Direct Democracy

Democracy in middle ages

In the Middle Ages, the feudal structure and the oligarchic regime based on the dominance of a specific person and group negatively affected the development of democracy. For this reason, in most of Europe, the Middle Ages was the period when democracy lost its viability (Stockwell, 2011). With the collapse of the Western Roman Empire with the effect of the Migration of Tribes, the feudal period began in Europe. In this period, social, political, and economic rights were shaped depending on the feudal lord, and the right of making politics belonged to only the landowners. One of the most significant development in this period was the Magna Carta document signed between the king and the nobles in England. Magna Carta could be considered as a positive development for democracy in that it restricted the authority of the king. However, it did not give equal rights to all citizens (Isakhan & Stockwell, 2011). It could be said that the effect of geographical discoveries, Renaissance and Reformation movements in Europe affected the decline of the power of the church, the strengthening of the bourgeois class, and democracy.

Key concepts of the enlightment age:

• The Oligarchic Regime
• The Collapse of the Western Roman Empire
• Magna Carta

Democracy from the age of enlightment to the present

Representative democracy, which emerged in England in the 17th century, has been practiced in many parts of the world today. In this type of democracy, unlike the democracy in Ancient Greece, citizens elect politicians to represent them in parliament for a certain period. This election gives them the authority to legislate and control (Marshall, 1999, pp. 140-141). Another significant development in democracy was the "America Declaration of Independence" published in America on July 4, 1776. Although it was not an attempt to end slavery, it affected the monarchy's loss of power (Isakhan & Stockwell, 2011). As a result of the 18th-century intellectuals' movement, the French people gained their rights and freedoms (Israel, 2011).

The First and Second World Wars enabled to be recognized the value and freedom of human beings and, in turn, the importance of democracy. The most crucial stage, especially for democracy and freedom, was the publication of the "United Nations (UN) Universal Declaration of Human Rights" dated 10 December 1948 after the Second World War (1939-1945), which was great destruction for humanity. As a result, the fundamental human rights and freedoms and the idea of democracy began to be widely accepted throughout the world (Dogan, 2001, p. 159). Finally, with the struggles of women for gaining freedom and equality in local, national, and international dimensions, the concepts of citizenship and democracy have reached their exact meanings (Smith, 2008).

"A multitude is a better judge of many things than any individual." -Aristotle, Politics

References

Dahl, R. (1998). On democracy. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Demir, N. (2010). Demokrasinin temel ilkeleri ve modern demokrasi kuramları. Ege Akademik Bakış, 10 (2) 2010: 597-611

Dogan, İ. (2001). Modern toplumda vatandaşlık demokrasi ve insan hakları: İnsan haklarının kültürel temelleri. Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık.

Esgerova, Z. (2018). Demokrasinin geçtiği tarihi tekamül yolu. Sosyal ve Kültürel Araştırmalar Dergisi (SKAD), 4(7), 163-175.

Finley, M. I. (1982). Authority and Legitimacy in the Classical City-state (Vol. 50, No. 3-5). Copenhagen: Munksgaard.

Isakhan, B., & Stockwell, S. (2011). Introduction: Democracy and history. In B. Isakhan & S. Stockwell (eds) The secret history of democracy (pp. 1-16). London: Palgrave Macmillan,

Israel, J. (2011). Democratic enlightenment: philosophy, revolution, and human rights 1750-1790. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kaya, E. (2011). İlköğretim 7. sınıf öğrencilerinin bazı demokrasi kavramları hakkındaki görüşleri ve yanılgıları (Aksaray örneği). (Yüksek lisans tezi). YÖK ulusal tez merkezi veri tabanından erişildi (Tez No: 280023).

Laski, H. (1962). The rise of European liberalism. London: Unwin Books

Miller, D., Coleman, J., Connoly, W. & Ryan, A., (Eds.) (1991). Blackwell encyclopedia of political thought, Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.

Smith, B.G. (ed.) (2008). The Oxford encyclopedia of women in world history. New York: Oxford University Press.

Stockwell, S. (2011). Democratic culture in the early Venetian Republic.  In B. Isakhan & S. Stockwell (eds) The secret history of democracy (pp. 105-119). Palgrave Macmillan, London.

Thorley, J. (1996). Athenian democracy. London, Routledge.

Woodruff, P. (2005). First democracy: The challenge of an ancient idea. New York: Oxford University Press.

Globalization is the development of closer economic, cultural, and political relations among all the countries of the world as a result of travel and communication becoming easy.

Globalization is one of the most frequently used terms in the field of international politics and diplomacy as well as academic studies (Bayar, 2008; Robertson, 1999 as cited in Eguz, 2016). As a word, globalization, which means the siege, comprehending and integration of the whole, was seen as a form of perception of the postmodern era throughout the world after the industrial revolution (Giddens, 1990), a pluralistic form of perception of the postmodern period. Globalization points to a rather complex set of processes, resulting in a gradual integration of the world into a greater interdependence due to an increasingly integrated global economy and a worldwide communications boom (Yang & Vidovich, 2002). 

Concepts such as globalization, new world order, post-modernism, localization, neoliberalism are often used interchangeably (Sönmez, 2002). Globalization has become a “magic” word used to express change in almost every area of ​​the earth, from economy to politics, from social policy to culture. Globalization has begun to be seen as a key concept that will open the doors of the past and the future, and has become a "fashionable phrase that has turned into a password". This phenomenon expresses the integration of the world in political, economic, social and cultural fields, with distance becoming less important in every field.11.png

Globalization is the convergence and interaction of countries as a result og human activities.

Now, the concepts of time and space have lost their old meanings, borders have begun to disappear and the interdependence of countries has increased (Bozkurt, 2000). Thanks to technological advances, all kinds of information can now be accessed instantly and quickly; new global economies are taking shape with economic developments; With social changes, each social system undergoes changes to create new forms of communication and new social interactions. The new structure created by globalization ensures the establishment of connections and bridges between people. Today, globalization is also defined as the gathering and gathering of social relations. Therefore, in the globalization process, social relations become a prerequisite and intercultural interaction gains importance (Cafoğlu & Somuncuoğlu, 2000).

Video: What is Globalisation?

Global Values and Future of Education

In the information society, knowledge is a way of life, thinking and lifestyle (Fındıkçı, 1998). In such a period, it is important to produce and use valid knowledge. The education of the information age aims to raise creative and innovative people. Today, it is emphasized that the information should not be transferred directly to the individual, but that the individual should be taught how and in which ways to reach the information they need.

Therefore, an important concept that has been talked about is learning to learn. If the individual knows how to learn, he og she can reach the necessary information in the most approproate ways.

In today's society, the definition of school, curriculum, teachers, parents and even students has changed. The school has to be not only an institution where certain knowledge and skills are given, but also an institution that shapes the society and gives it direction and form. Curriculums should be arranged in an understanding that not only conveys stereotypical information to students, but also prepares them for real life and synthesizes the realities of life. The task of teachers is not just to convey information, but to be a guide and leader that guides students. At the same time, more participation and cooperation of parents in school and curriculum should be supported. Now, the phenomenon at the center of education is the student, the learning individual. Of course, current knowledge, experience, cultural values ​​and facts will be transferred to students. However, the aim is not to memorize ready-made information, but to help students create their own knowledge.

The education of the information age aims to raise creative and innovative people. Today, it is emphasized that the information should not be transferred directly to the individual, but that the individual should be taught how and in which ways to reach the information they need. 

Global education

Global factors, technological changes, personal expectations and dissatisfaction, social expectations and limitations oblige nations to make education in the globalized world. 

The aim of global education is to support individuals in dealing with complex life conditions and uncertainties in the future, to shape education through democratic policies, to guide students in shaping a more peacheful world, and to offer teachers new opportunities. -Kirkwood 2001, Scheunpflug &Absrand 2006.

Dimensions of global education affecting students;

• Approaching events and situations from different perspectives,
• forming research and application communities,
• having knowledge about global dynamics,
• learning,
• learning English as an international language,
• understanding and respecting other cultures and intercultural awareness,
• gaining the ability to learn different languages,
• electronic literacy.

(Merryfield, 1997; Kirkwood, 2001 and Pincas, 2001).

References

Yang, R., & Vidovich, L. (2002). Positioning universities in a context of globalisation. Educational Sciences Theory & Practice, 2(1), 209-222.

Sönmez, V. (2002), “Küreselleşmenin Felsefi Temelleri” Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi. Sayı 6. 

Merryfield, M. (1997). A framework for teacher education in global perspectives. In M. Merryfield, E. Jarchow & S. Pickert (Eds.), Preparing teachers to teach global perspectives: A handbook for teacher educators (pp. 83-119). CA: Corwin Press.

Kirkwood, T. F. (2001). Our global age requires global education: Clarifying definitional ambiguities. The Social Studies, 92(1), 10-15.

Pincas, A. (2001). Culture, cognition and communication in global education. Distance Education, 22(1), 30-51.

Fındıkçı, İ. (1998). Enformasyon Bilgi Toplumu Dünyası; Bilgi Toplumunda Eğitim ve Öğretmen. Bilgi ve Toplum Dergisi. Nisan, 1998.

Bozkurt, V. (2000). Küreselleşme. Kavram, Gelişim ve Yaklaşımlar. Küreselleşmenin İnsani Yüzü. İstanbul: Alfa Basım Yayım Dağıtım Ltd. Şti. 

Bayar, F. (2008). Küreselleşme kavramı ve küreselleşme sürecinde Türkiye. Uluslararası Ekonomik Sorunlar Dergisi, 32, 25-34.

Robertson, R. (1999). Küreselleşme, toplum kuramı ve küresel kültür. (Trans. Ü. H. Yolsal.). Ankara: Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları.

Regarding the factors that lead to globalization, it is seen that mainly certain elements are emphasized. Among the important factors that accelerate globalization, basic developments such as rapid developments in communication and information technologies, widespread use of computers and the internet, expansion of national and international trade networks, increase in foreign investments and international companies can be counted.

The primary reason for globalization is the rapid spread of English throughout the world and its becoming a universal language. More than one billion people in the world speak English. In nearly a hundred countries, English is spoken as a mother tongue or a second language. Therefore, English has become the universal language of media, computing and business. Other factors causing globalization can be listed as follows (Deniz, 1999:88):

1. Fiber optics, satellites and computer technology increase global communicationglobalization.jpg
2. Multinational enterprises with integrated and coordinated product design, manufacturing, sales and services around the world
3. Growing free trade agreements between states
4. Trade, finance, business, product and the emergence of worldwide regulations and standards for services,
5. The increasing strength of financial markets,
6. The increase in foreign investments and consequently foreign control over employees in many countries,
7. The rapid and immersive developments in information, technology and informatics.

Video: What is globalization?

The period we live in, in which global values come to the fore and a rapid change is experienced; The information society is called the information age. Rapid developments in information technologies cause social structures to change and reshape. This rapid change process has brought new concepts and phenomena. One of these new concepts is the information age or information society. 

In the information society, knowledge is a way of life, thinking and lifestyle. -Findikci, 1998

In such a period, it is important to produce and use valid knowledge. In the information society, knowledge production sites are universities and academic research centers. A feature of the information society is the human being who can learn. In the information society, the individual has to understand, interpret, use the data of the world of science, reveal new ones, and gain problem-solving skills.

The role of educational organizations 

 In the information society, individuals need to be creative, questioning, thinking and productive people. The role of educational organizations in the information society is changing. The education of the information age aims to raise creative and innovative people. Today, it is emphasized that the information should not be transferred directly to the individual, but that the individual should be taught how and in which ways to reach the information they need. Therefore, an important concept that has been talked about is learning to learn. If the individual knows how to learn, he or she can reach the necessary information in the most appropriate ways.

So, today education towards in;

1. 1.Individualized instruction: Personalizing the instructional process to meet each student's individual learning needs and abilities.
2. 2. Humanized learning: Teaching how to learn and use learning and how to gain mastery over himself and his environment, interpersonal communication and value clarification skills as well as cognitive information processing skills.
3. 3. Vocational education: Providing first-hand work experiences to students in order to prepare them for a satisfying life and profession. 

Global factors, technological changes, personal expectations and dissatisfaction, social expectations and limitations oblige nations to make education in the globalized world (Aslan, 2004). The aim of global education is to support individuals in dealing with complex life conditions and uncertainties in the future, to shape education through democratic policies, to guide students in shaping a more peaceful world, and to offer teachers new opportunities (Kirkwood 2001; Scheunpflug & Absrand, 2006).

Dimensions of global education affecting students;

• Approaching events and situations from different perspectives,
• forming research and application communities,
• having knowledge about global dynamics,
• learning,
• learning English as an international language,
• understanding and respecting other cultures and intercultural awareness,
• gaining the ability to learn different languages,
• electronic literacy.

(Merryfield, 1997; Kirkwood, 2001 and Pincas, 2001).

References

Amin, A. & Thrift, N. (1995). Globalization, institutions, and regional development in Europe. In A. Amin & N. Thrift (Eds), European science foundation series (pp. 22-46). UK: Oxford University Press.

Knight, J. (2015). Updating the definition of internationalization. Retrieved August 20, 2016.

YANG, R., & VIDOVICH, L. (2002). Üniversiteleri küreselleşme bağlamında konumlandırmak. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 2(1), 209-222.

Merryfield, M. (1997). A framework for teacher education in global perspectives. In M. Merryfield, E. Jarchow & S. Pickert (Eds.), Preparing teachers to teach global perspectives: A handbook for teacher educators (pp. 83-119). CA: Corwin Press.

Kirkwood, T. F. (2001). Our global age requires global education: Clarifying definitional ambiguities. The Social Studies, 92(1), 10-15.

Pincas, A. (2001). Culture, cognition and communication in global education. Distance Education, 22(1), 30-51.

Scheunpflug, A. & Asbrand, B. (2006). Global education and education for sustainability. Environmental Education Research, 12(1), 33-46.

Since the purpose of citizenship education is to define the relationship between the individual and the state, citizenship education can be seen as one of the basic elements of education (Fogel & Zarrow, 1997). This means that citizenship education gives citizens certain values that they must adhere to in order to become members of their society. The concept of citizenship comes from ancient Greece (Fogel and Zarrow, 1997). Accordingly, the concept of citizenship is not an Eastern but a Western concept. The subject as citizen was an idea put forward by Aristotle (Fogel & Zarrow, 1997). The main point Aristotle emphasized was that citizenship education is not just about equipping students with skills to prepare them for the labor market. He emphasized the concept of phronesis as a part of citizenship education (Hovdenak & Stray, 2015). Phronesis is rooted in basic actions and is about what we might think of as traditional values in modern society, such as respect, patience and dignity.

In addition, the challenges of globalization, conflicts and migration that arise when discussing citizenship education in a particular context should also be taken into account (Peters & Britton, 2008). A significant amount of research has linked citizenship to globalization, and this is often reflected in terms such as 'global citizenship education'. A crucial aspect of the new discourse of 'global citizenship education' is the question of what it means to be a global citizen (White & Openshaw, 2005).

Global citizenship education can mean a form of citizenship in which the typical citizen takes responsibility for the problems of the whole world.

Global citizenship education can mean a form of citizenship in which the typical citizen takes responsibility for the problems of the whole world. If citizenship is limited to a form of political discourse that supports the neoliberal globalized economy, as suggested by Peters & Britton (2008), then “global citizenship education” may certainly be the way to go as the foundation of education. Conversely, if citizenship education is meant to be a response to the closer environment, such as challenges faced by local communities, this type of citizenship education may be worthy of the attention of governments and education authorities. There is currently an urgent need for skills to deal with and participate in challenges in civic communities and, as highlighted by DR Cole (2012), particularly those affected by the ongoing economic crisis (Wrigley, Lingard & Thomson, 2012).

The concept of this new international approach to creating an international, multicultural or global citizen derives from the global challenges facing the world. This is because of the local problems encountered, not only are local communities experiencing social and environmental challenges, but local communities on the other side of the world are also affected by these problems. Whether there is a war or the risk of a nuclear power plant collapsing, people in different parts of the world will be at risk at the same time. As a result, some researchers and policy documents argue that individuals should participate and take responsibility for increasingly larger challenges from themselves and their communities. The idea of ​​creating this global citizen is an approach that came up when defining citizenship education. Moreover, UNESCO is an actor on the international stage, defining citizenship education in another way to tackle contemporary challenges (neoliberal capitalism, technology and integration of ethnic minorities). UNESCO (2014) defines the concept as educating students to be active and responsible members of the local community and preparing them to participate in the problems and challenges that arise in their communities. These difficulties can mean ecological and social problems (UNESCO, 2014).

The emergence of citizenship, which expresses the belonging of individuals to societies and is related to their rights and duties in the societies they live in, dates back to the periods when people lived collectively. It is an undeniable fact that technology develops very rapidly in our age and affects the social life. With the integration of technology into social life, societies are now trying to keep up with these developments and changes brought about by technology. The concept of digital citizenship is a new dimension of citizenship that emerged as a result of the impact of technology on social life.

Citizenship can be expressen as "an individual who is a member of a political community".

With the development of technology in recent years, digital tools that have entered people's lives allow them to share photos, videos, drawings or opinions in virtual environments such as social media and to make joint projects with people from different parts of the world. (Fingal, 2020). The use of digital tools has become a necessity during the COVID19 pandemic process and students have started to use digital tools intensively both in their classes and at home (Ranchordas, 2020). Since they use technology extensively on a daily basis, students need to be prepared in a way that will enable them to communicate and collaborate in a safe and responsible way in online environments (Parent and Community Impact, Technology, 2018; Tan, 2011). Safe and responsible online communication and cooperation has brought the concept of digital citizenship to the fore (Ribble, Bailey, & Ross, 2004; Ribble, 2008; Shelley, 2004).

The rules for correct and responsible use of technology that guide students on how to navigate the online world in their personal and academic lives, rather than simply being citizens of a country, are called digital citizenship (Parent and Community Impact, Technology, 2018; Ranchordas). , 2020; Tan, 2011). Ribble and Bailey (2007) define digital citizenship as the online display of behaviors that ensure the legal, safe, ethical and responsible use of information and communication technologies.

Traditionally, it has been reported that the basic principles of citizenship include being respectful and polite, being responsible, and making positive contributions to society (Impero Software & Digital Citizenship Institute, 2016). The principles of digital citizenship are not much different from traditional citizenship (Somyurek, 2019). Just as all children throughout human history need the help of their parents and teachers to be good citizens, today's youth, called digital natives, need guidance to learn how to apply citizenship principles in the digital world (Impero Software & Digital Citizenship Institute, 2016). ; Fingal, 2020).

Characteristics of a Good Digital Citizen

• Advocates equal digital rights and digital access for all.
• Tries to understand all points of view.
• Respects the digital privacy, intellectual property and other rights of online people.
• Communicates and empathizes with other people through digital channles and treats them with empathy.
• Uses critical thinking for all online resources and does not share unreliable sources such as fake news or advertisements.
• Uses technology to support and develop  social goals.
• Gives importance to physical, emotional and mental health while using digital tools.
• Uses digital tools to collaborate with other people.
• Understands the permanence of the digital world and manages his/her digital identity by taking the necessary measures.

From the past to the present, people have developed a set of rules and systems in order to live together since the first mass settlements. These management systems started with systems based on the sovereignty of the nobility and clergy at first, and the people did not have a say in the administration. However, with the democracy that started in the Greeks and then expanded, the people also participated in the administration and entered the decision mechanism.

Democracy is a form of government in which the political control is directly in the hands of the people.

Democracy is a form of government in which the political control is directly in the hands of the people or representatives freely chosen by the people at regular intervals, and all citizens are considered equal regardless of their social and economic status. It is generally defined as the "self-government of the people" in its most common form today, can be expressed as a form of government in which the rulers are elected by and among the people through fair, free and regular elections. 

Developing and advancing technology over time has affected almost everything. This includes human lives. The first radio broke the information barrier between people living in different parts of the world, then the telephone filled the information and communication gap between relatives living in different places, and now the internet and social networks fill the gap between all people in the world. In April 2019, Facebook had 2.37 billion monthly active users, an increase of 55 million from the previous quarter. In the same year, WhatsApp reached 1.5 billion active users in 180 countries, making it the most popular messaging app in the world. The average rate of users who access the internet for the first time every day in the world is about 1 million. Those who are currently connected to the Internet spend an average of 6 hours and 42 minutes per day on the Internet.

In the communication process that started with waves, the point reached today is that communication tools are important in acquiring information and participating in decision processes.

So everyday more and more people meeting with the internet and using it everyday in almost every step of their lives. The internet, which has affected societies tremendously since its emergence and spread, responds to a different need with its tools added at every moment. This influence brings with it economic, social, legal, philosophical and political consequences both individually and socially. One of these results or possibilities is the use of the internet to strengthen politics and democracy. 

Stages of communication

The use of technological possibilities is struggling with the two biggest problems of modern democracy. The first of these problems is the gradual decrease of knowledgeable citizens, and the second is the decrease in the level of political participation. With the help of telecommunications, it is possible to connect with the representation of citizens on certain major political issues, which arouses public interest.

Although there are different definitions about digital democracy, we can broadly define digital democracy as the use of new information and communication technologies in democratic processes to increase and expand citizens' participation in political decision-making process.

Today, with mass media and spatial software, people have had the opportunity to participate in democracy digitally, and they have come to a more central point in decision-making processes, meeting the needs and taking the necessary steps.

References

Aktaş, M. (2015). DEMOKRASİ KAVRAMINA ELEŞTİREL BİR BAKIŞ. Anemon Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 3(1), 87-105.

Van Dijk, J. A. G. M. (2012). Digital democracy: Vision and reality. Public administration in the information age: Revisited, 19, 49.

Sguelo, G (2020). Digital democracy; Is the future of civic engagement online? EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service, Members' Research Service, PE 646.161

Gil de Zúñiga, H., Veenstra, A., Vraga, E., & Shah, D. (2010). Digital democracy: Reimagining pathways to political participation. Journal of information technology & politics, 7(1), 36-51.

Zengin, M. A. (2013). Bilgi İletişim Teknolojilerinin Demokrasi İçerisinde Kullanımı ve Dijital Demokrasiye Geçiş. Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 17(4), 271-304.

Citizenship was formed many times with the changes on the technology and social life. With todays internet tools it is changing like it never did before. The news are spreading in the speed of light, people learning and sharing their knowledge all around the world.

As we mentioned before, digital citizenship is a persons ability to engage positively, critically and competently in the digital life, learning and using the skills of effective communication, to practice forms of social participation  through the responsible use of technology.

A digital citizen is defines as anyone who regularly uses internet. Like other forms of citizenship, a digital citizenship has also rights and responsibilities on thein online actions.

This (digital citizenship) includes behaviors such as being supportive of others and not cyberbullying. It also applies to unintentional online activities, such as posting false information without checking for accuracy. In short, a good digital citizenship can be expressed as citizens who behave in a positive and helpful way on the internet. The concept of citizenship includes not only the laws and documents in the country, but also the concept of belonging to the digital world intertwined with society.

Digital responsibility is to be aware of your actions and to control your digital life.

Digital Literacy

Like digital citizenship, digital literacy connected with the online world and our understanding of it. Digital literacy is to understand the digital world, and to be able to navigate it. So, a digitally literate person knows how to use links, videos, audio clips, and images. They understand how to find information and navigate in a  website or app, they know how to get around on the internet, and how to use the new software and technologies. 

Since they born in to the digital world, todays students often has better digital literacy than their teachers and parents. This is because they grew up in an online world, so they are “digital natives.” Like a person can speak a language that is spoken in their home country where they have born. A person who knows about digital literacy may or may not also engage in good digital citizenship. For example hackers and cyberbullies are usually knows the digital world well and they all digitally literate but lack good digital citizenship. So the difference between digital literacy and digital citizenship is the way of using the internet. 

Why We Need to Learn About Digital Citizenship?

Many student are using smart phones and has internet access even in the elementary level. So, it brings both opportunities and risks. Without a proper understanding of internet and online world, they can get themselves and others in a great deal of trouble. They need to learn what they can share and what they should keep to theirselves in order to be safe.  They need to learn how to deal with cyberbullies and frauds. They need to learn the basic concept of internet security in order to lost their money or sensitive information. Additionally, it’s important for students to recognize that every time they engage online, they’re creating a digital footprint that could someday be used against them. Another incredibly important reason to teach digital citizenship is online safety. We all know that there are predators online looking for the vulnerable to prey upon. For all those reasons, we need to learn about digital citizenship.

What is Citizenship Education?

Citizenship education is understood as the subject area that is promoted in schools with the aim fostering the harmonious co-existence and mutually beneficial development of individuals and the communities they are part of. In order to achieve this objective, citizenship education needs to help students develop knowledge, skills, attitudes and values in four broad competence areas:

1. interacting actively and constructively with others
2. thinking critically
3. acting in a socially responsible manner and 
4. acting democratically

What is Democracy Education? 

According to Şahin (2009), democracy education is educational activities that aim to make individuals aware of human rights and freedoms, adopting and defending democratic values and attitudes, and transforming them into behavior. Democratic education is an educational ideal in which democracy is both a goal and a method of instruction. It brings democratic values to education and can include self-determination within a community of equals, as well as such values as justice, respect and trust.

How is Democracy Education related to Citizenship Education?

Democracy education supports citizenship education in many ways.

How does democracy education affect citizenship education?

Democracy education imparts individuals some of the below citizenship characteristics.

An individual who receives democracy education (Toper, 2007):

• is a citizen who is informed about the world and people,
• is a citizen who shares/solidars with other people in the world,
• is a citizen working/taking action for the solution of world problems,
• is a citizen who knows / defends / struggles for the realization of human rights.

Democracy education aims to turn individuals into “active citizens” who know, adopt, respect and defend human rights and freedoms in society. Democracy education aims to enable individuals to know their basic civic rights and responsibilities and to express them in accordance with democratic values. 

References

Eurydice (2017). Citizenship Education at School in Europe – 2017. Brussels: Eurydice.

Şahin, I. (2009). Democracy and human right educstion. E-Journal of New World Sciences Academy, 4(4), 1341-1354.

Toper, T. (2007). “İlköğretim İkinci Kademede Demokrasi Eğitimi: İkinci Kademe Öğretmenlerinin Demokratik Tutum ve Davranışları Sergileme Düzeyleri. (Kars İli Örneği ).” Master Thesis, Kafkas University, Sosyal Sciences Institute.

Citizenship education provides individuals with knowledge and understanding of laws and rules, democratic processes, media, human rights, economy, sustainable development, global society, justice, equality, freedom, autonomy. It provides skills and competence in critical thinking, analysis of information, expression of ideas, discussion and negotiation, conflict resolution and social participation.Develops values such as being fair, obeying the law, tolerance, listening, working with others.

One of the most important principles of effective citizenship education is to provide individuals with practical skills. For this reason, education should also be practice-oriented.

Tip: Effective citizenship education should be pratice oriented.

The principles of effective citizenship education can be listed as follows:

1. Prioritizing the application
2. Ensuring the change and development of knowledge, attitudes and skills in individuals
3. Development of substructure for implementation

The implementation objectives of effective citizenship education are given below:

Values: Cultural diversity/multiculturalism, democracy, human rights, gender equality, environment and quality of life, minority rights.

Knowledge: Understanding core characteristics and terminology of values, awareness of civil rights and duties, awareness of gender issues, understanding of diversity.

Attitude: Tolerance, responsibility and autonomy, kindness in interpersonal relationships, motivation, valuing diversity, empowerment.

Skills: Organizing activities, identifying problems, strategic thinking, project design and management, organizational skills, leadership, dialogue, creating change, teamwork.

Environment: school, local community.

The table above reveals the objectives of effective citizenship education that will be given formally in schools and effective citizenship education that will last informally throughout life. Effective citizenship education planned for practice has three main components: (i) conceptual/cognitive component, (ii) affective component, (iii) behavioral component.

The conceptual element in effective citizenship education focuses on increasing the basic knowledge of the participants. Therefore, the conceptual element is fundamental to effective citizenship education. Thus, the participants are given basic theoretical knowledge in the lessons.

In the affective phase of the training, the participants communicate with other individuals. Interactive learning takes place through discussions, meetings, games, simulations, role plays.

The behavioral element, on the other hand, is realized by learning by doing, discussing and solving real problems, and ensuring the active participation of individuals in education.

Conceptual: theoretical knowledge in the lessons.

Affective: discussions, meetings, games, simulations, role plays.

Behavioral: discussing and solving real problems.

Giving citizenship education in the form of democratic values and skills by exceeding the level of knowledge is seen more effective in gaining awareness, attitudes and behaviors regarding democratic and political participation (Sadık & Sarı, 2012). In citizenship education; cince the development of positive attitudes is at the forefront as well as providing information, teaching methods that do not include visual materials and are based on rote are considered insufficient. Ünal (2012) emphasizes that activities that are not only aimed at improving oral and written expression skills, but also include applicable, different methods and techniques should be included in the learning and teaching processes. 

References 

Hablemitoğlu, Ş., & Özmete, E. (2012). Etkili vatandaşlık eğitimi için bir öneri. Ankara Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 1(3), 39-54.

Sadık, F. & Sarı, M. (2012). Çocuk ve demokrasi: ilköğretim öğrencilerinin demokrasi algılarının metaforlar aracılığıyla incelenmesi. Uluslararası Cumhuriyet Eğitim Dergisi, 1 (1), 48-62. 

Som, İ. & Karataş, H. (2015). Türkiye’de vatandaşlık eğitimi üzerine bir inceleme. Uşak Üniversitesi Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(1), 33-50.

Ünal, F. (2012). Ortaokul 8. Sınıf vatandaşlık ve demokrasi eğitimi öğretim programı ve ders kitaplarında insan hakları üzerine bir çözümleme. Bartın Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1 (1), 110-127.

There are different views on how democracy should be taught to people.

According to the first view, the functioning of the state, the history of democratic institutions and the efforts of societies to gain and maintain democracy should be taught seriously to students. According to the second view, students should be directed to democratic practices and activities in the society, not in the classroom, in order for the academic goals to be compatible with social and social projects. The third view argues that schools themselves should be democratic. Those who support this view say that democracy education cannot be taught contrary to a democratic attitude.

they think (Cook & Westheimer, 2006).

Tip: Three different views on teaching democracy: theoretical teaching, democratic practices and activities, democratic schools.

For John Dewey, who heavily touched on the relationship between democracy and education, democracy is more than a political system. Since democracy is seen as an experience that should be experienced in schools, the way to experience this life and create a peaceful society passes through schools. Factual teaching of democracy at the level of knowledge will not be sufficient for the formation of a democratic perspective and lifestyle in the student. For this reason, it is important to ensure that the methods to be used in the classroom are open communication between students, students work collaboratively, they look critically at events and situations, use research and analysis approaches, and address the problems they will encounter in daily life (Erdem & Eğmir, 2020).

It turns out that democracy education should be practice-oriented, life-centered and should be in a structure that prioritizes the process rather than the goal. In other words, the methods to be used in democracy education should center the individual and be related to a context for the implementation of democratic values. In democracy education, besides theoretical transfer, it is important to gain democratic attitude and critical thinking skills and to give students the opportunity to express their thoughts.

Some Didactics For Democracy Education

Apple and Beane (1999) identified 7 basic conditions on which democracy and democratic life style depend:

1. Evaluation of ideas, problems and policies with reflective critical thinking and analysis,
2. Expressing ideas easily and without hesitation & open flow of ideas,
3. Believing that people have the capacity to solve problems
4. Worrying about the peace and welfare of the society,
5. Concern for the rights of individual, minority and marginalized groups,
6. Ideal democratic values that guide people's lives,
7. The existence of social institutions that support democratic life

According to Pearl and Knight (1999), the following 4 conditions must be fulfilled as the prerequisites for democratic education to be implemented and implemented in classrooms.

1. Information should be given universally so that all students can recognize and recognize personal and social problems. In other words, equality of opportunity in education and access to information should be provided to everyone without exception.
2. Students should be involved in making decisions that affect their lives.
3. Everyone should have and be able to use clearly defined rights.
4. Everyone should be encouraged to be equally successful in all legal works and initiatives of society.

As a result, there is an approach that perceives democracy as 'a way of life' on the basis of contemporary democratic education.

Beyond transferring or teaching information about democratic principles and values such as pluralism, equality, participation, respect for rights and freedoms, tolerance and tolerance; democracy education requires these values are experienced by students in a social and cultural context in and out of school, and democratic citizenship skills - to try to understand different ideas, supporting the views with rational arguments, developing suggestions for the solution of social problems, etc. This approach is based on a student-centered education model that requires students to take an active role in their own learning. (Yılmaz & Yıldırım, 2009). 

References

Apple, M. W. ve Beane, J. A. (Eds) (1999), Democratic Schools: Lessons from the Chalk Face, Buckingham: Open University Press.

Erdem, C. & Eğmir, E. (2020). Demokrasi ve Eğitim: Kavramsal Bir İnceleme. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 22(TBMM’nin 100. Yılı ve Millî İrade Özel Sayısı), 159-171.

Pearl, A. ve Knight, T. (1999) The Democratic Classroom: Theory to Inform Practice, Cresskill: NJ, Hampton Press.

Yılmaz, K., & Yıldırım, G. (2009). Demokrasi eğitimi ve okul meclisleri projesinin uygulanmasına ilişkin öğretmen ve öğrenci görüşleri. MÜ Atatürk Eğitim Fakültesi Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, 29(29), 187-207.

Socratic Seminar

Moreover, because  citizenship education involves broad concepts including critical thinking, interaction with others in democratic responsible ways and encourages learning through active citizenship, it does not always fit with traditional pedagogic practices in school education (Pratas and others, 2017). One of the suitable methods for citizenship education practices is Socratic seminar. 

The Socratic seminar is a systematic teaching method used today to study beliefs or ideas based on the idea that all new knowledge is dependent on prior knowledge. It is a method based on the discussion of a high-level text. Students are asked to find the thoughts in this text. It aims to make students think rather than fill their minds with ready-made answers or memorized information. Thinking is supported by asking questions and a question needs to raise other questions. Students collaborate, not argue to find answers and meaning. Students seek an open and common understanding of each other. This process is led by a knowledgeable leader (usually a teacher).

Tip: Socratic Seminar is a method based on the discussion of a high-level text.

It is a teaching method for group discussion of a difficult-to-understand, high-level academic text or an academic and complex subject. Students are asked to find the thoughts in this text. This process is managed by a leader (mostly a teacher) who is knowledgeable about the subject. The leader manages the process by giving clues and supporting students. While students are trying to understand and analyze the text, they also gain skills such as critical thinking and discussion.
It is tried to reach a common consensus and view by developing the views presented differently from the discussion.

Tip: While students are trying to understand and analyze the text, they also try to reach a common consensus from the discussion.

Tips for Teachers and Socratic Seminar Leaders

• Your task is not to make participants "cover" the topic but to help them use their minds well. You are a co-learner, not an authority on "right" answers.
• Read the text in advance and take ample notes to have a deep understanding yourself.
• Get the group focused on the opening question as quickly as possible.
• Allow for "think" time. Pauses are OK; participants need time to think and process information and ideas.
• Model thoughtful behavior. Ask clarifying and probing questions if others seem stuck or are not asking for evidence, reasoning, or connections back to the text.
• Rephrase a question if participants seem confused by it (or ask another participant to rephrase it).
• Don’t let sloppy thinking or gross misinterpretations go unexamined. Ask participants to offer
• Textual support for their thinking or to consider what ______ would say about their interpretation.
• Encourage participants to use the text to support their responses.
• Pay attention to what is NOT being discussed. If there is a perspective that is not being represented, introduce it.
• Guide participants to discuss their differences and work through conflicts respectfully.
• Help participants work cooperatively, not competitively.
• Involve reluctant participants while restraining more vocal members. Examples: “What do you think John meant by his remark? What did you take John to mean?” “Jane would you summarize in your own words what Richard has said? . . . Richard, is that what you meant?”
• Avoid making eye contact with participants if they continually talk to you rather than the group.
• Strive for balance. Do not dominate the discussion or withdraw entirely; you are a participant too.

Stages of a Socratic Seminar

1. Choosing the Appropriate Text: The Socratic seminar method is based on a close analysis of a text. It is therefore important to choose a text that provides sufficient opportunity for comment and discussion. If you choose a simple text where the meaning is pretty simple, students won't have much to talk about. Also, the time allotted to read the text should not be too long.
2. Allow Time for Students for Preparation: Before starting the seminar, allow time for students to prepare their opinions. Students should grade the text before starting the class discussion. They can underline important terms, break text into paragraphs, or take notes.
3. Creating a Class Contract: There are some rules that students must follow when practicing the Socratic seminar. It is important to establish these rules before you begin:
   • Talk to each other, not just the discussion leader or teacher.
   • Use the evidence in the text to support your views.
   • Ask questions if you don't understand what someone is saying (“I think they said that; is that true?”).
   • You don't need to raise your hand to speak, but please be careful - don't interrupt-
   • Do not belittle another student's ideas. Without judging the student you didn't accept, provide your alternative interpretation or ask a follow-up question to explore or clarify an idea.
4. Remind the Purpose of the Activity: Before starting the seminar, it is important to remind students that the purpose of the seminar is not to discuss or prove a topic, but to understand more deeply what the author is trying to express in the text.
5. Socratic Seminar: At least 15 minutes should be devoted to the activity and can often last 30 minutes or more. As students become more familiar with the Socratic seminar activity, they will be able to discuss a text for longer without teacher intervention.
6. Reflect and Evaluate: After the Socratic seminar activity, give students the opportunity to evaluate the process in general and their own performance in particular. The following questions can be used for reflection:
   • Did the seminar turn to discussion rather than dialogue? / is he back? How was the group's reaction?
   • Which parts of the discussion did you find most interesting? Which parts interested you the least?
   • What did the talks at the seminar add to your understanding of the text? / Did it add anything?

You can review this handout this handoutfor more detailed information about Socratic questions, students' duties, seating arrangements etc. in a socratic seminar process.

References

Avid Socratic Seminar Guidelines (PDF)

Davey, C. S. (2012). The Socratic Classroom Reflective Thinking Through Collabotive Thinking. AW Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.

Debate

The method of debate is the presentation of two dissimilar views with their 'reasons, whys' and 'consequences' in the treatment of a subject.  It includes mutual discussions of any group, under the direction of a chairman, in a certain order, on issues that concern them all, and for a specific purpose.

There are different techniques in the implementation of the debate method. Although there are techniques individually applied such as speeches and seminars; below, the techniques applied within the group are given in detail. 

1. Buzz Groups

The name comes from the noise which is generated when students start talking in these groups. Buzz groups as a short, intense, very focussed and highly participative technique, are formed by dividing large groups into small discussion groups of 2 to 15 people who meet simultaneously for a specified time to discuss a specific question, problem or issue. Buzz groups encourage more efficient debate. You can hereLinks to an external site. watch a short video for buzz groups. 

Instructions

• Put students in pairs or small groups
• Assign each pair/group a task or discussion topic for a limited period.
• It may help to give them some time to write down their own response before discussing.
• Optional: ask each pair/group to report back to the class afterwards.

2. Philliphs 66 

The Philliphs 66 variation of buzz groups can be used with small groups or large groups. With the system, a group of six people brainstorms for six minutes and then a spokesman for each group presents either the best ideas or all ideas to the larger group.

3. Colloquium

In this technique, which is also called expert invitation, two groups are created, one asking questions and the other answering experts and resource persons. The expert group may consist of students who are prepared for the subject, as well as from field experts. The audience consists of people who are interested in the subject in the audience group.

Instructions

• The student group representing the audience presents the topic and then asks questions to the expert group if necessary.
• After the presentations are completed, the listening students ask their questions and get the answers.
• The leader leading the panel encourages the audience to ask questions and summarizes the discussions.

4. Forum

It is a discussion technique in which democratic participation is most effective and in which the audience can participate. It involves a group of speakers giving information about a subject on a certain subject, where those who are in the audience can also speak. In this method, a small group of students give information to other students. 

Instructions

• It begins with two or more speakers with differing views conveying expert knowledge on a particular topic to a wide audience.
• Then the experts answer questions from the audience.

5. Workshop

Workshop is a meeting at which a group of people engage in intensive discussion and activity on a particular subject or project. It is a technique that teaches the solution of these problems by gathering individuals in a certain place in a short period of time, bringing together common tendencies, interests and business problems. 

Instructions

• The administrator or teacher selected in the application of this technique; present the problem to the students in a pre-planned order.
• After the presentation, the problem should be discussed by the group members.
• The suggestions related to the problem should be summarized and determined as the following solution suggestions.

References

Brewer, E. W. (13). Proven ways to get your message across. California, United States of America: Kristen L. Gibson.

Ocak, G. (2007). Öğretim ilke ve yöntemleri. Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık.

Yanpar Yelken, T., & Akay, C. (2015). Öğretim İlke ve Yöntemleri. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık.

How to evaluate?

Measurement and evaluation in education is defined as a gradual, systematic process that includes the effectiveness of learning at the end of the teaching activity and the collection and interpretation of educational data. Since citizenship education is usually given based on practice, the development of appropriate assessment methods emerges as a necessity. In the evaluation process in citizenship and democracy education, it is emphasized to measure the process, not the product, with alternative measurement and evaluation tools. 

As stated in the Citizenship Education at School in Europe report (Eurydice, 2017), in order to evaluate the student's participation in school and society, active participation with a certificate or a certain hour of community service obligation as a reason for graduation are given as evaluation examples. 

Indeed, researches on measurement and evaluation processes in citizenship and democracy education reveal that memorization-based or result-oriented evaluations are insufficient. Quantitative measurement techniques used after the lesson can reveal knowledge levels, but are insufficient in determining attitudes. It is stated that both process and result-oriented measurement and evaluation approach should be included in which students can reveal their knowledge levels and attitudes together.

Examples of process-based and alternative assessment tools are presented in the curriculum and activities related to citizenship and democracy education. It is emphasized that in measurement and evaluation practices, it is necessary to act as diverse and flexible as possible (Zabun, 2018).

Evaluation of student achievements, according to the characteristics of the school, together with the written evaluation, it is stated that they should make evaluations through studies such as seminars and conferences within the scope of projects, performance studies and community service activities, which are alternative measurement and evaluation tools. Daily homework, exercises, quizzes, checklists, self-assessment and peer assessment methods are also recommended for daily assessment of classroom work.

The citizenship education curriculum at secondary level specifies that “knowledge and skills are assessed on the basis of oral responses, including presentations and written projects. Evaluation of values and attitudes (e.g. showing interest, understanding importance, valuing, following rules) is facilitated by role-playing, case studies, and group work (Eurydice, 2017)

• Seminars
• Performance studies
• Community service activities
• Observations
• Quizzes
• Self / Peer Assesment
• Role Playing
• Case Studies
• Group work

In summary, in addition to written and oral evaluations in citizenship and democracy education, tests consisting of performance assignments, observation, discussion, interviews, student product files, projects, posters, self-evaluation scales, multiple choice, matching, fill in the blank and open-ended questions, role-playing, case studies, and group work are used.

As examples of quantitative evaluation, you can check the standardized tests given below.

Democratic Citizenship Attitude Scale developed by Yıldırım and Türkoğlu (2017) (available in English)

Democracy Awareness Scaledeveloped for secondary school students by Akan (2011) (available in Turkish)

As an example of alternative evaluation you can check the Tolerance and Respect for Differences According to Different Family Attitudes and Types activity and rubric developed by Leblebici (2020) (available in English)

References

Akan, Y. (2011). Awareness Democracy Students in Secondary Education. Master's thesis, Sakarya University.

Eurydice (2017). Citizenship Education at School in Europe – 2017. Brussels: Eurydice.

Leblebici, H. (2020). Developing Human Rights and Democracy Education Course Curriculum for Teacher Candidates: An Application on Class Teaching. PhD thesis, Yıldız Technical University.

Yildirim, C., & Türkoğlu, A. (2017). Democratic citizenship attitude scale: A validity and reliability study. Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 46(2), 649-664.

Zebun, E. (2018). A Comparative Analysis of Citizenship Education in Turkey and France. PhD Thesis.